Purpose Statement
The purpose of the "Elements of Reasoning"
worksheet is to provide students with a method of developing a line of thought
in relation to an issue, problem, or question. Such a line of reasoning can
form the basis of an essay, an oral presentation with discussion, or may be
used to solve a personal problem, all of which are areas pinpointed by faculty
as needing attention on the original SBCC Survey. Exposure to using the
vocabulary words enhances linguistic competence fundamental to oral and written
communication. Reasoning skills are strengthened which are transferable to any
area.
Description of
Activity
"The Elements of Reasoning" worksheet guides the
student through the process of reasoning by a series of prompts that are
designed to be able to appeal to a variety of purposes and points of view on
questions, issues or problems.
Activities that use the worksheet include, minimally, class discussion,
preparation for an essay, and maximally, oral reports with student-run group
dialogue.
Materials Needed
a. The "Elements of Reasoning" worksheet is a
series of questions designed to serve as prompts in eight areas: purpose,
issue, question, or problem to solve, assumptions, point of view, information,
concepts, interpretation and inference (conclusion), and implications and
consequences of conclusion. This has been adapted from presentations made by
Dr. Richard Paul, Director of the Center for Critical Thinking and Moral
Critique, at annual summer conferences at Sonoma State University. Please see
the weblink below to print a hard copy.
b. "Guidelines for Reports" refers to an assignment sheet for oral
reports based upon the "Elements of Reasoning" worksheet. Instructors
can tailor the structure of the presentations according to criteria pertaining
to skills students need to develop within their subject areas.
c. Montclair State's "Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus
for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction", by Peter Facione,
may be helpful for faculty who wish to have some background information on
critical thinking. "Consensus List of Critical Thinking Cognitive Skills
and Sub-skills" (Table 3) as well as "Affective Dispositions of
Critical Thinking" (Table 5) suggest skills and attitudes which may be
encouraged in most disciplines (ED 315423).
d. Optional: The article, "You Can Learn to Raise Your IQ Score" from
Psychology Today, Jan. 1976. Errors in problem solving are pointed out, and a
comparison is made between effective and ineffective styles of problem solving.
Application
Several options for use of the materials exist ranging from
minimal to maximal time use in class. The following options range from smallest
to largest amount of in-class time use:
a. Introduce the "Elements of Reasoning" worksheet by making an
overhead of a blank form, and generate a problem, issue or question from the
class. By engaging the class in discussion based on the concepts, vocabulary
and prompts on the worksheet, a class consensus may be developed about what to
enter under each category.
If the class needs more direct instruction due to unfamiliarity with the
vocabulary words and concepts, the instructor should first present a completed
worksheet based upon a real question, issue or problem important to him or her.
(One example I use is how can Alaska maintain the pristine purity of the
natural environment while enhancing the basic quality of living, i.e. housing,
urban planning, medical and social services, etc., by developing alternative
economic ventures, other than the oil pipeline.)
The words on the worksheet are integrated in class lectures and discussions to
promote familiarity with the terms and more thorough thought processes.
b. The students (after being introduced to the worksheet in class) may be asked
to use the "Elements of Reasoning" worksheet to prepare and organize
ideas prior to writing one of the class essays. One option is to require
students to hand in the worksheet as part of a draft on which teacher suggestions
can be made for revision; another option is to require that the worksheet be
turned in with the final copy.
c. The students use the "Elements of Reasoning" to prepare a report
on an issue, question or problem to solve. They research outside sources for
the "Information" category, including interviewing individuals
knowledgeable in the field pertinent to their chosen topic. They explore their
own assumptions and point of view, as well those of authors and interviewees.
They focus their discussion of the issue, question, or problem in light of
certain important concepts. (They can use the Concept Diagram from the DSPS 77:
Writing & Reading Strategies course packet to develop concept formation, if
needed.) Students consider all the data, devise solutions to the problems, and
think clearly about short-term and long-term implications of their conclusions.
Each student is responsible for presenting his or her reasoning on the topic to
the class. If the class is small, students should sit in a circle; if the class
has a large number of students, divide into small groups of about seven. After
the presentation, the students ask the presenter questions, and the presenter
takes charge of the discussion. Usually the instructor doesn't have to
intervene unless the group is veering off the topic or clearly wasting precious
time and the presenter is not conscious of it. The discussion usually brings
out a variety of perspectives. The leader should make an attempt toward the end
of the given time to summarize the discussion and note any questions that are
worthy of further pursuit.
Each student should fill out a feedback sheet to be given to the presenter. The
instructor can design the feedback page to fit desired objectives, but usually
sections asking for an overall response and for suggestions for further study
should be included. The instructor may wish to collect the feedback sheets
first before distributing them as they are usually quite interesting; however,
some students may prefer to keep the feedback confidential.
Organizational Structure: One of the decisions the instructor makes is how many
students to have in each group if the class roster is large. Since each student
needs time to present and lead the discussion, two students can report in one
90 minute class period and one student can realistically report in one 50
minute class (in order to develop a meaningful, in depth dialogue). This means
if there are seven students per group, this could take seven class periods in a
50 minute class, with time for the instructor to present some material at the
beginning. Or it would take 3.5 class periods for a 90 minute class. I found
that it was well worth the time in class because each student distinctly feels
the responsibility to organize a good report and direct the discussion well,
and participants must use active listening skills and raise questions that show
an understanding of the concepts and terms on the worksheet. Students are
receptive to each other, and much is gained from a student-run discussion. Many
interesting and even shocking facts come out pertaining to social issues that
the instructor may not very easily elicit through teacher-directed discussion.
It is important to observe and guide the discussion to support students who are
having a difficult time when necessary.
Possible Problems: One of the problems that arises is students may focus on
personal narratives for the sake of verbal expression rather than develop
critical thinking skills through dialogue. The instructor has to decide what is
allowable. For example, if a student clearly needs to express emotions in
relation to an issue, i.e. date rape or homelessness, it is wise to allow that
discussion to progress, with an eye to drawing out options for solving
problems. Referral to Health and Wellness may be necessary at times. It is
important for the student in charge not to let one individual dominate the
discussion but to draw out comments, perspectives and ideas from all students
in the group in a non-threatening way through questioning.
Another problem might be that students have little background in critical
thinking and confuse it with daytime TV discussions. The instructor then needs
to continue to use the terms in class discussion and role model thinking aloud
about any type of issue, question or problem to provide more background for
students throughout the term. See also the entry on "Reflection"
under the Wellness category; encourage students to devote a definite amount of
time reflecting daily.
Related Student
Services
a. Jim Chesher, SBCC Philosophy professor, is an excellent
resource for the process of using the "Elements of Reasoning" in
class. He has much wisdom based on experience from instruction and application
in his classes. He also gave an FEC workshop on "Asking the Right
Questions", available through the LRC video library.
b. If a student has counseling needs, refer him or her to the Health and
Wellness counselors on the first floor of the Student Services Building.
c. Other Resources:
Bender, David L. & Bruno Leone, ed. Opposing Viewpoints Series. San Diego:
Greenhaven Press.
Browne, M. Neil and Stuart M. Keeley. Asking the Right Questions. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1990.
Chuska, Kenneth. Improving Classroom Questions. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa,
1995.
Critical Thinking Books & Software. K-Adult. (800) 458-4849.
<www.criticalthinking.com>
Facione, Peter A. "Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for
Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction." Montclair: Institute
for Critical Thinking, series 4, No. 6, 1991.
Jones, Elizabeth, and Martin Kramer, eds. New Directions for Higher Education:
Preparing Competent College Graduate: Setting New and Higher Expectations for
Student Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.
Nickerson, Raymond S., David N. Perkins, and Edward E. Smith. The Teaching of
Thinking. Hillsdale: LEA, 1985.
Paul, Richard. "The Elements of Reasoning." International Conference
on Critical Thinking and Educational Reform. Sonoma State University.
Conferences are given annually in the summer. Call (707) 664-2940, e-mail
cct@sonoma.edu, or visit website at <www.sonoma.edu/cthink/>.
Paul, Richard. Critical Thinking. Santa Rosa: Foundation for Critical Thinking,
1992.
Whimby, Arthur. "You Can Learn to Raise Your IQ Score." Psychology
Today, Jan. 1976.
Links/Handouts
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web page was created on 3/20/99 at 2:25:22 PM
and modified on 3/26/99 at 3:15:30 PM